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வரி 41 ⟶ 40:
(same physical layout of the file-system (due to practical reasons)among other things)."
 
At the time, the [[GNU]] project had created many of the components required for a free operating system, but its own kernel, the [[GNU Hurd]], was incomplete and unavailable. The [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] operating system had not yet freed itself from legal encumbrances. This left a space for the Linux kernel to fill, and despite the limited functionality of the early versions it rapidly accumulated developers and users. Early on, [[Minix]] [[hacker]]s contributed code and ideas to the Linux kernel, and today it has received contributions from thousands of programmers.
 
Originally, "Linux" was only the name of the kernel. The term "kernel" properly refers to the low-level system software that provides a hardware abstraction layer,
[[disk]] and [[File system|filesystem]] control, [[Computer multitasking|multi-tasking]], [[Load balancing|load-balancing]], [[Computer network|networking]] and [[Computer security|security]] enforcement. A kernel is not a complete [[operating system]] (as the term is usually understood). A complete system built around the Linux kernel is commonly known as the Linux operating system, although some prefer to call the system '''GNU/Linux''' and there is [[GNU/Linux naming controversy|some controversy on the point]]. People often confuse the kernel with the operating system, leading to many mistaken notions, ''e.g.'' the idea that Torvalds wrote or coordinates other parts of the system than the kernel.
 
=== காலக்கோடு===
வரி 66 ⟶ 61:
* [[9 ஜூன்]] [[1996]] - 777,956 நிரல்வரிகளைக்கொண்ட [[லினக்ஸ் | லினக்ஸின்]] பதிப்பு 2.0.0 வெளியாகிறது.
* [[25 ஜனவரி]] [[1999]] - Linux 2.2.0 is released, very buggy at first. (1,800,847 lines of code.)
* [[18 Decemberடிசம்பர்]] [[1999]] - [[ஐபிஎம் mainframe]] patches for 2.2.13 published, bringing Linux into the biggest enterprises.
* [[4 Januaryஜனவரி]] [[2001]] - Linux 2.4.0 is released. (3,377,902 lines of code.)
* [[17 Decemberடிசம்பர்]] [[2003]] - Linux 2.6.0 is released. (5,929,913 lines of code.)
** [[17 Juneஜூன்]] [[2005]] - Linux 2.6.12 is released.
** [[29 Augustஆகஸ்ட்]] [[2005]] - Linux 2.6.13 is released. [http://kerneltrap.org/node/5600]
 
==பாகங்கள்==
 
Further developing his own code and integrating changes made by other programmers, Linus Torvalds keeps releasing new versions of the Linux kernel. These are called "vanilla" kernels, meaning they have not been modified by anyone. Many providers of GNU/Linux operating systems modify the kernels of their product, mainly in order to add support for drivers or features which have not officially been released as stable, while some distributions, such as [[Slackware]], rely on vanilla kernels.
 
===தொகுப்பை வரிசைப்படுத்தும் முறை===
 
The version number of the Linux kernel currently consists of four numbers, following a recent change in the long-standing policy of a three-number versioning scheme. For illustration, let it be assumed that the version number is composed thus: '''A.B.C[.D]''' (e.g. 2.2.1, 2.4.13 or 2.6.12.3).
 
* The '''A''' number denotes the kernel version. It is changed least frequently, and only when major changes in the code and the concept of the kernel occur. It has been changed twice in the history of the kernel: In [[1994]] (version 1.0) and in [[1996]] (version 2.0).
 
* The '''B''' number denotes the major revision of the kernel. [[Even and odd numbers|Even numbers]] indicate a stable release, i.e. one that is deemed fit for [[production use]], such as 1.2, 2.4 or 2.6. [[Even and odd numbers|Odd numbers]] are development releases, such as 1.1 or 2.5. They are for testing new features and drivers until they become sufficiently stable to be included in a stable release.
 
* The '''C''' number indicates the minor revision of the kernel. In the old three-number versioning scheme, this was changed when security patches, bugfixes, new features or drivers were implemented in the kernel. With the new policy, however, it is only changed when new drivers or features are introduced; minor fixes are handled by the '''D''' number.
 
* A '''D''' number first occurred when a grave error, which required immediate fixing, was encountered in 2.6.8's [[Network File System|NFS]] code. However, there were not enough other changes to legitimate the release of a new minor revision (which would have been 2.6.9). So, 2.6.8.1 was released, with the only change being the fix of that error. With 2.6.11, this was adopted as the new official versioning policy. Bugfixes and security patches are now managed by the fourth number, whereas bigger changes are only implemented in minor revision changes (the '''C''' number).
 
===பராமரிப்பு===
வரி 152 ⟶ 132:
**(and more changes: [http://www.kniggit.net/wwol26.html The Wonderful World of Linux 2.6])
 
== கட்டமைப்பு==
The Linux kernel includes true multitasking, [[virtual memory]], [[shared library|shared libraries]], demand loading, shared [[copy-on-write]] executables, proper [[memory management]], and [[TCP/IP]] [[networking]].
 
Today Linux is a module-loading [[monolithic kernel]]. [[Device driver]]s and kernel extensions typically run in [[ring 0]], with full access to the hardware, although some run in [[user space]]. Unlike standard monolithic kernels, device drivers are easily configured as [[module (Linux)|modules]], and loaded or unloaded while running the system. Also unlike standard monolithic kernels, device drivers can be pre-empted under certain conditions. This latter feature was added to handle [[hardware interrupt|hardware interrupts]] correctly, and to improve support for [[symmetric multiprocessing]]. Preemption also improves latency, increasing responsiveness and making Linux more suitable for real-time applications.
 
The fact that Linux is not a [[microkernel]] was the topic of a
famous [[flame war]] between [[Linus Torvalds]] and [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum|Andy Tanenbaum]] on comp.os.minix in [[1992]]. [http://www.dina.dk/~abraham/Linus_vs_Tanenbaum.html] [http://www.google.com/groups?threadm=12595%40star.cs.vu.nl]
 
The complete source code of various versions of the Linux kernel can be browsed at http://lxr.linux.no .
 
==Programming languages==
The Linux kernel is written in the version of the [[சி நிரலாக்கல் மொழி|C programming language]] supported by the GNU [[GNU_Compiler_Collection|GCC]] compiler (which supports a superset of standard C), together with relatively short sections of code written in the [[assembly language]] of the target architecture (and at last count Linux supported about 20 different processor families). Because of the extensions to C supported by the GCC compiler it was (in conjunction with its associated toolset) for long the only compiler capable of correctly building a Linux kernel. More recently [[Intel]] claims to have modified its C compiler so that it also is capable of compiling the kernel.
 
Many other languages are used in some way, primarily in connection with the kernel 'build' process (the methods whereby the bootable image is created from the sources). These include [[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], and various [[shell script]]ing languages. Some drivers may also be written in [[C plus plus|C++]], [[Fortran]], or other languages, but this behaviour is strongly discouraged. The kernels build system only supports GCC as kernel and driver compiler.
 
== Portability ==
While not originally intended as a [[portability|portable]] operating system, Linux is now one of the most widely ported operating system kernels (although [[NetBSD]] has been ported to almost as many architectures), running on a diverse range of systems from the [[iPAQ]] (a handheld computer) to the [[ஐபிஎம்]] [[System z9]] (a massive [[mainframe]] server that can run hundreds or even thousands of concurrent Linux instances). Linux is intended to run as the main operating system on [[ஐபிஎம்]]'s new [[Blue Gene]] [[supercomputer]] architecture when it is finished. Linus included, perhaps humorously, [[BogoMips]] into the kernel as a performance pseudo-comparison tool.
 
It is important to note that Linus's efforts were also directed successfully at a different sort of portability. Portability, according to Linus, was the ability to easily [[Compiler|compile]] applications from a variety of sources on his system; thus Linux originally became popular in part because it required the least effort to get popular [[GNU General Public License|GPLed]] and other [[open source]] applications running.
 
Linux currently runs on the following machine architectures:
*[[Advanced RISC Machines|ARM]]
**[[Acorn Computers Ltd|Acorn]]: [[Acorn Archimedes|Archimedes]], [[A5000]] and [[Risc PC|RiscPC]] series
**[[StrongARM]], Intel [[XScale]] etc.
**[[Hewlett Packard|HP's]] [[iPAQ]]
**[[Nintendo|Nintendo's]] [[Nintendo DS|DS]] ([http://www.dslinux.org DS Linux Project])
**[[Apple Computer|Apple's]] [[iPod]] ([[IPodLinux]] [http://ipodlinux.org iPodLinux Project])
*[[Axis Communications]]' [[CRIS]]
*[[Hewlett Packard|Hewlett Packard's]] [[Alpha processor|Alpha]]
*[[Hewlett Packard|Hewlett Packard's]] [[PA-RISC family|PA-RISC]]
*[[Hitachi (company)|Hitachi]]: [[SuperH]] ([[SEGA]] [[Dreamcast]]), [[Hitachi_H8|H8/300]]
*[[ஐபிஎம்|IBM's]] [[IBM S390|S/390]] ([[31-bit]])
*[[ஐபிஎம்|IBM's]] [[zSeries]] and [[System z9]] mainframes ([[64-bit]])
*[[Intel]] [[Intel 80386|80386]] and up: [[ஐபிஎம் PC]]s and compatibles with CPUs:
**[[Intel 80386|80386]], [[Intel 80486|80486]], and their [[AMD]], [[Cyrix]], [[Texas Instruments|TI]] and [[ஐபிஎம்]] variants
** the entire [[Pentium]] series;
** [[AMD]] 5x86, [[AMD K5|K5]], [[AMD K6|K6]], [[Athlon]] (all 32-bit versions), [[Duron]];
** [[AMD64]]: [[AMD]]'s 64-bit processor technology (formerly known as x86-64)
** [[Cyrix]] 5x86, [[6x86]] (M1), 6x86MX and [[MediaGX]] (National/AMD Geode) series.
** [[VIA Technologies]] [[VIA C3]] and later processors
** Support for Intel [[Intel 8086|8086]], [[Intel 8088|8088]], [[Intel 80186|80186]], [[Intel 80188|80188]] and [[Intel 80286|80286]] CPUs is under development (see [http://elks.sourceforge.net ELKS] project)
**[[Microsoft]]'s [[Xbox]] (Pentium III processor) (see [[Xbox Linux]])
*[[Intel]] [[IA-64]]
*[[MIPS architecture|MIPS]]
**[[Silicon Graphics, Inc.]]
**[[Cobalt Qube]], [[Cobalt Raq]]
**[[Sony]] [[PlayStation 2]] (see [[PS2 Linux]])
**[[DECstation]]
**several others
*[[Motorola]] [[Motorola 68020|68020]] and up:
** newer [[Amiga]]s: [[A1200]], [[A2500]], [[A3000]], [[A4000]]
** [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Macintosh II]], [[Macintosh LC|LC]], [[Macintosh Quadra|Quadra]], [[Centris]] and early [[Performa]] series
** [[Sun Microsystems]] 3-series workstations (experimental, uses Sun-3 MMU)
** Non-Sun 68020-based machines require the [[Motorola 68851]] [[memory management unit|PMMU]]
*[[NEC Corporation|NEC]] [[V850|v850e]]
*[[Renesas]] [[M32R]]
*[[PowerPC]] and [[ஐபிஎம் POWER]]:
**most newer [[Apple Computer|Apple computer]]s (all PCI-based [[Power Macintosh|Power Macintoshes]], limited support for the older [[NuBus]] Power Macs)
** clones of the PCI Power Mac marketed by [[Power Computing]], [[UMAX]] and [[Motorola]]
** [[Amiga|Amigas]] upgraded with a "Power-UP" card (such as the Blizzard or CyberStorm)
** [[ஐபிஎம்|IBM]] [[RS/6000]], [[iSeries]] and [[pSeries]] systems
** [[Pegasos]] I and II boards
** several embedded PowerPC platforms
*[[SPARC]] and [[UltraSparc]]: Sun 4-series, SPARCstation/SPARCserver, Ultra, Blade and Fire series workstations and servers, as well as clones made by [[Tatung]] and others.
 
A complete list of ports is at [http://www.cyut.edu.tw/~ckhung/l/linux_ports.html Linux Ports].
 
== காப்புரிமை ஆவணங்கள் ==
வரி 224 ⟶ 138:
திரு. டோர்வோல்டு அவர்கள், லினக்ஸின் ஜி.பி.எல் காப்புரிமைப் பற்றி பேசும்பொழுது, ''"best thing I ever did."'' என்று வர்ணித்துள்ளார் இந்த தொடுப்பை காணவும்[http://www.hotwired.co.jp/matrix/9709/5_linus.html]
 
One general question about the application of the GPL to Linux involves whether loadable kernel modules are considered "derived works" under copyright law, and thereby fall under the terms of the GPL. Torvalds has stated his belief that modules using only a limited, "public" subset of the kernel interfaces can sometimes be non-derived works, thus allowing some binary-only drivers and other modules not obeying the GPL. Not all kernel contributors agree with this interpretation, however, and even Torvalds agrees that many kernel modules are clearly derived works, and indeed he states that ''kernel modules ARE derivative "by default"''; ultimately, such questions can only be resolved by a court.
 
Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds.
 
==சின்னம்==
வரி 235 ⟶ 146:
 
டக்ஸ் எனப்பெயர் வர காரணம் ஆங்கிலத்தில் டோர்வால்ட்சின் லினக்ஸ் ('''T'''orvalds' Lin'''UX''') என்பதன் சுருக்கமென கருதப்படுகிறது. [http://www.sjbaker.org/tux/ டக்ஸ் பெயர் காரணம்]
 
== Kernel panic ==
 
:''Main article:'' [[Kernel panic]]
 
In Linux, a "panic" is an unrecoverable system error detected by the kernel as opposed to similar errors detected by [[user space]] code. It is possible for kernel code to indicate such a condition by calling the <code>panic</code> function located in the header file sys/system.h. However, most panics are the result of unhandled processor [[exception handling|exceptions]] in kernel code, such as references to invalid memory addresses. These are typically indicative of a [[computer bug|bug]] somewhere in the call chain leading to the panic.
 
 
 
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